France 1500: Between the Middle Ages and the Renaissance

Jean Hey, The Annunciation, (1490/1495), Oil on panel, The Art Institute of ChicagoOn exhibit now through 10 January 2011 at the Grand Palais in Paris is a fascinating exhibit that I highly recommend.  Called France 1500 it explores a period of prolific artistic and cultural activity in France that falls into neither the Middle Ages nor the Renaissance.  Indeed, the era has no real name and thus the artists and works associated with it are often overlooked in the historic record. 

The late 15^th century was a turning point in French cultural history marked by economic prosperity, demographic growth, and the territorial ambitions shared by two successive kings, Charles VIII (1483-98) and Louis XII (1498-1515), who marched their armies over the Alps and into neighboring Italy.  There, they discovered a time of exceptional flowering in the arts called the Italian Renaissance. 

This lead to a heightened cultural exchange between European nations as French and later Dutch artists traveled Italy to train under Italian masters, and vice-versa.  A new creative effervescence saw France at an artistic crossroads that few people know about and art history books often fail to mention.  It was a transitional period, when new perspectives and techniques bumped up against forms and structures perfected during the middles ages to transform sculpture and stained glass, tapestries and gold work, painting and decoration, manuscript and other printed work.  It was a time when Gothic ornament and chiaroscuro often co-existed side-by-side.

In the France 1500 exhibit, 200 masterpieces both publicly and privately owned, are on loan from all over Europe and the United States.  If you can’t make the exhibit in Paris, don’t worry!  You can still catch it at the Art Institute of Chicago, 26 February-29 May 2011.

Time Traveler Tours Progress Report, III

Beware Madame la Guillotine has a new look! 

Behold the new app title page, hot off the proverbial press:

Art Design by Beth Lower

Image:

Baudry, Paul (1828-1886). Charlotte Corday. 1860. Oil on canvas, 203 x 154 cm. Inv. 802. Photo: Gérard Blot. Musée des Beaux-Arts, Nantes, France. Photo Credit: Réunion des Musées Nationaux / Art Resource, NY.

What’s in a Name: Les Rétais

What’s a Rétais? 

Why, someone from Ile de Ré, of course.  Like this chap here, immortalized in bronze: military engineer, planter and wine maker, Nicolas Martiau.

Martiau was born on the west-coast French island of Ile de Ré in 1591.  At the age of 23 he could be found in England where his burgeoning abilities as an engineer caught the notice of the Count of Huntington.  Huntington offered young Martiau a job, defending the Count's interests in Virginia.  So Martiau set off for the New World.  He would remain there until his death in 1657.

Martiau played a major role in building and maintaining the palisades that protected the young colony of Jamestown.  He became known as "The Father of Yorktown" where he settled, married Jane Barkely, and fathered a large and prosperous family.  Together the couple had four children and many grandchildren, besides.  Among their descendents of the fifth generation, they claim many American patriots.  But the one that made Nicolas Martieu the posthumous pride of Ile de Ré was George Washington, military and political leader of the American Revolution and first President of the United States (1789-1797). 

Remember that is was General Washington who marched alongside his distant French cousins, led by le Comte de Rochambeau, in the 1781 Battle of Yorktown, the decisive victory over British General Lord Charles Cornwallis that would eventually bring to an end the conflict between Britian and her former colonists.

 

Photo credit Sarah B. Towle © 2010.



Vauban's Star-Shaped Cities

Historians tell us that Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban (1633-1707) was the foremost military strategist of his day.  But just how great was he? Well, he picked the wrong side in an uprising against King Louis XIV and the royalists still recruited him to their side.

Cycling today around Ile de Ré – an island off the west coast of France known mainly for its potatoes, salt marshes, and beaches – the Uber-Mensch, Lucky-one-and-only (Loo), and I pedaled right into one of Vauban’s celebrated creations: a star-shaped former fortification that still encircles the moules-frites shops and ice cream vendors of St. Martin de Ré.

In fact, there are three Vauban fortifications on the Ile de Ré.  Their thick, pointed 17^th century stone walls retain the water-free moats and star-shaped outer ramparts that once protected the towns that still thrive within.  This was Vauban’s military genius: to make cities both harder to attack, and easier to defend, by creating more area to overtake with no blind areas from which an invader could attack by surprise.

Star-shaped fortification became necessary with the advent of cannon and gunpowder.  Where previously enemies had to attack four sides of a citadel against a defender’s arrows, they could now fire explosives at much longer range and crumble ancient medieval walls.  Vauban’s strongholds obliged an invading army to converge on two sides of each point of the star after overcoming several star-shaped outer bastions and parallel ditches while under artillery fire themselves.  The siege warfare that ensued was protracted and bloody.  And Vauban rarely lost.  Indeed, he became just as good at taking an enemy fortress as defending a French one.  He directed 53 sieges and developed a keen eye for finding the weak spot in his enemies’ emplacements.

Vauban began his military career as a rebel member of La Fronde, a 17^th century revolution led by the Prince Condé against his cousin, the King of France.  By rights, Louis XIV could have had Vauban killed when royal guards captured him in 1653.  But Vauban had already distinguished himself in several sieges and attracted the attention of the king’s Minister of War, the Marquis de Louvois.  The Minister induced the young insurgent to switch sides; and so Louis XIV took Vauban on as a royal military engineer in 1655.

For the next 40 years, Vauban worked tirelessly at the service of the king, building or fortifying over 160 locations in France.  Ile de Ré, a very long, thin stretch of land, was of strategic importance as a first line of defense before the French mainland and the ancient port of La Rochelle.

But in addition to being a military strategist of distinction who changed the way war was fought, Vauban was also a humanitarian.  His greatest concern was always for the impoverished peasant masses of his infancy and youth.  In 1707 he published a tract against the King’s system of disproportionate taxation, which benefited the privileged at the expense of the poor.   The government of King Louis XIV condemned the book and Vauban died in disgrace in 1708.  But his ideas would inspire the Enlightenment thinkers and help to fan the flames that led, 80 years later, to the French Revolution. 

Today, 12 locations touched by Vauban’s genuis are considered UNESCO World Heritage sites.  St. Martin de Ré is one of them.



Images:

Maps of St Martin de Ré, Hunigue, and Saarlouis, courtesy of Wikimedia Commons.

La Sainte-Chapelle: The Majesty of Stained Glass

Most of the stained glass windows that we ooh and aah over in France’s gothic cathedrals today are unfortunately not original.  What survived the anti-clerical French Revolution – when the biblical picture stories were smashed or the lead that once held them in place melted down for bullets – was later finished off by world war aerial bombardments.  Paris’ stunning Sainte-Chapelle remains an exception.  Retaining two-thirds of its original glass, the chapel of the former Palais de la Cité is one of the finest surviving examples of the medieval art form of story telling.

The windows of the Sainte-Chapelle, renowned for their richly hued reds and blues, recount the bible story from creation to redemption.  Like most stained glass picture stories, they read from left to right and from top to bottom.  They comprise 600 square meters (6,456 sq ft) and make up three of the chapel’s four walls, bathing the interior in a vibrant, dancing, joyous luminescence.   

The 13th century French king, Louis IX - later dubbed Saint Louis - commissioned the construction of the Sainte-Chapelle to house the relics of the Passion, which he purchased in 1239 from the impoverished emperor of the Latin Empire, Baldwin II of Constantinople, for the ungodly of sum of 135,000 livres.  It was the king’s objective to make France the leader of western Christendom.  So he had the magnificent Sainte-Chapelle, with its sculptured stonework, painted medallions, rich textiles, and superior stained glass, built as a reliquary to house, among other things, Christ’s crown of thorns and a piece of the cross on which he was crucified. 

In contrast to the architectural phase that preceded it, the Sainte-Chapelle exemplifies the Rayonnant or Decorated style of High Gothic art.  The architects of the time sought a sense of weightlessnes by focusing less on size and more on finely detailed decorations such as pinnacles, moldings, and elaborate window tracery.  Indeed, the term, “Rayonnant”, refers to the radiating character of the enormous rose windows typical of the period.  Rayonnant-style builders thinned vertical interior structures, relying more on exterior buttresses to support the weight of their buildings. They were thus able to enlarge windows such that walls seemed to contain nothing more than mullions and pictures of colored glass.

The royal chapel, La Sainte-Chapelle, was consecrated on 26 April 1248.  The relics were exhibited to the faithful each year on Good Friday. 

During the French Revolution, 1789-99, the relics were stolen and dispersed; the steeple and baldachin, or altar canopy, were removed and destroyed.  The stained glass windows of the chapel survived the rampage, however.  But in 1803, when the chapel was requisitioned as an archive, some of the 13^th century colored glass was removed to bring in more light.  In 1855, work began to restore the Sainte-Chapelle under the direction of Eugène Viollet-le-Duc.  Though much of the chapel is a re-creation, his work was faithful to the original drawings and descriptions that existed at the time. In 1862, the Sainte-Chapelle was declared a national historic monument.  So, lucky for us, as Germans troops advanced on Paris during World War II, each piece of glass was removed from the chapel walls and hidden.  Subsequently replaced, we are today able to gaze upon the gift of some of the finest craftsmen to have lived more than 700 years ago. 

When next in Paris, do make time for a visit to La Sainte-Chapelle. You will not regret it, even if you get caught in a queue.

Images:

Saint-Chapelle, Upper Chapel, By Didier B (Sam67fr), 14 October, 2005, courtesy of Wikimedia Commons.

Abbé Suger and Gothic Architecture

History remembers Abbot Suger well. The priest from St. Denis invented Gothic architecture.  From its beginnings just north of Paris, the style spread throughout Western Europe, a defining marvel of the medieval era that remains with us today.  Seven centuries later, Victor Hugo would argue that human capacity for artistic expression climaxed with Gothic architecture.  He felt that while the spirit was oppressed in the dark, dogmatic Romanesque church, the Gothic cathedral liberated the human spirit, unleashing inspiration and aspiration in its flying buttresses and towering spires.  

During the Renaissance, however, the architectural style inspired by Abbot Suger was much maligned.  It was then that the label ‘Gothic’ was first applied. But it was meant as a term of derision to describe the handiwork of the Goths, uncultured barbarians all.

When we think of Gothic and High Gothic styles, we imagine monumental facades with sculptured bronze doors; interiors extending heavenward toward ceilings of ribbed vaulting; sturdy columns both strong yet light; and flying buttresses carrying the weight of the structure away on a wing of sculptured stone.  But perhaps Suger’s greatest contribution to the Gothic edifice was the stained-glass window.

Suger’s magnificent windows had two purposes.  The first was to tell the story of the bible in images for the benefit of the illiterate masses.  The second was to transform the Church into a place of continuous, unbroken light, lux continua.  Abbot Suger believed that light was an attribute of God and a sign of God’s work on earth.  By bathing the interior of his cathedral in radiant luminosity he felt he could build a sort of spiritual staircase between mere mortals and their God.

In his own words:

     Bright is the noble work, this work shining nobly

     Enlightens the mind so that it may travel through the true lights

     To the True Light where Christ is the true door.

In the image of the stained-glass window above, found in the Basilica St. Denis, the Abbot Suger prostrates himself in humility at the Virgin Mary’s feet.   A veritable calling card from the 12^th century that survived the destruction of the French Revolution to remind us:  Abbot Suger was here.

Photo credit  © Sarah B. Towle, 2010.



Feast Day of Saint Denis

Today is St. Denis’ feast day in France.  That’s him, in the picture, holding his severed head.  His is an awesome story.  It goes like this… 

Denis was a 3^rd century bishop sent by Pope Fabian to Lutecia, as Paris was known under the Romans, to convert the Gauls to Christianity.  Evidently, he was a little too successful.  So, Roman soldiers dragged the then 90-year-old man up the Roman highway, along the road that now bears his name, to the highest point of the city.  There, he and his faithful companions, a priest named Rusticus and a deacon named Eleutherius, were decapitated.  The hill on which they were killed is now called Montmartre: mount of the martyrs.

Denis had the last word on the Roman infidels, however, even after decapitation. He purportedly picked up his head and washed out his long white beard in a nearby stream.  He then proceeded to walk northward for ‘six thousand paces’, preaching a sermon the entire way.  He was buried where he finally collapsed, his friends, Rusticus and Eleutherius, laid to rest alongside him.

The burial site of St. Denis became a holy shrine and by the 5^th century began to attract many Christian pilgrims.  So the revered nun, St. Genevieve – the same one who had saved Paris from impending disaster as a girl – constructed a small church there to honor Denis’ life and faith.    

This small church was enlarged again in the 7^th century by the very Christian king, Dagobert I, who also established a monastery there to help regulate the increasing pilgrimages to the sacred site.  By his own choice, King Dagobert I was the first King of the Franks to be buried at St. Denis rather than at the Abbey of Saint-Germain-des-Près in Paris.

But it wasn’t until the early 12^th century that the Basilica of St. Denis that we know today first soared upward toward the heavens, defining the Gothic style of medieval architecture.  It was the work of Suger, Abbot of the St. Denis Monastery, as well as diplomat, statesmen, businessman, and close confidante of then King Louis VII.  Suger’s project took just a dozen years to construct, yet another miracle to take place in an era of rudimentary tools and inexact measurements, in holy St. Denis. 

On this the feast day of St. Denis, the 3^rd century bishop is venerated in the Roman Catholic Church as patron of Paris as well as one of the Fourteen Holy Helpers, a group of saints celebrated because their intercessions are believed to have been particularly effective, especially against diseases and common ailments. 

St. Denis is said to be the one to pray to in the event of a headache.

Photo credit  © Sarah B. Towle, 2010.



Carousel Fun Facts

The golden age of the mechanical carousel took place at the turn of the 20^th century, especially in North America.  During that time, immigrant craftsmen, having learned detailed wood crafting skills while building the church interiors of their homelands, contributed to the building of over 6000 carousels.  Only about 200 of these original, handcrafted carousels survive today. 

The heyday of the carousel ended in the 1920s with the onset of the Great Depression.

Heyday was the name of a bay Thoroughbred famous in the world of eventing, an equestrian sport that combines dressage, cross-country and stadium jumping.  Eventing, once referred to as “Militaire”, has its roots in the comprehensive training of the ancient French Calvary.   

Typically, the outward facing side of the carousel horse or animal is more heavily carved and ornate.  This is called the “romance side".  If you ever come across a carousel animal whose romance side is on the left, it will have come from England where carousels, like the traffic, circulate to the left in a clockwise fashion.  Because European and American carousels turn counterclockwise, the animals’ romance side is on the right.

Images:

French carousel photos © Sarah B. Towle, 2010.

Dressage horse and rider by de:Benutzer:BS Thurner Hof, March 2005, courtesy of Wikimedia Commons.

The Mechanical Carousel

Back in the 1100's, as Spanish crusaders journeyed across the land we now know as Turkey, they observed the locals playing a game on horseback that resembled a "little war".  They brought this game back to Spain, calling it a carosella. From Spain the game spread throughout Europe, evolving as it went from medieval jousting to its less-combative descendant, tilting at rings. 

In France, the game became the object of tournaments among royals and nobility, full of pageantry and fan-fare with horses draped in luxurious fabrics and adorned in bejeweled harnesses.  The object was to ride your horse or chariot at full tilt with lance in hand and spear an opponent or, in later years, a small ring tied with brightly colored ribbons from a tree limb or pole.  Riders who did well were greatly celebrated and bestowed with riches and glory.  So, noble families went to great lengths to have their sons trained in the game.  

Eventually, an enterprising Frenchman devised an efficient way to aid young noblemen in the art of le carrousel as it had come to be known in France.  He suspended carved horses and chariots from chains hung from spokes that radiated from atop a central, rotating pole.  The young trainees sat astride the carved beasts and tilted at rings with each revolution of the machine, thus improving their game without tiring or harming a real horse.

This was the beginning of the modern mechanical carousel.  You can still find a few simple carousels of this type in France today, mostly in the children’s areas of public parks.

By the late 1700s, it was all the rage among wealthy French families to have a carousel of their own.  The devices were no longer used as a training tool for jousting but existed purely to entertain.  The carved horses and chariots became more and more elaborate. Other animals as well as fantastical creatures were added to the rotating menagerie. 

However, these early carousels had to be lightweight so that they could be moved by man, mule, or horsepower.  It wasn’t until the invention of the steam engine that carousels came to be what we know them as today with galloping horses that spin at speeds unheard of in the 18^th century. 

Photocredit: Sarah B. Towle © 2010.



The Equestrian Carrousel

Every Thursday I hop out of bed and head for my weekly horseback ride in the Bois de Boulogne.  In so doing, I partake of a centuries-old popular French past time, desending from kings and pageantry, armed battles and plumed musketeers.  In today’s class, my fellow cavaliers and I were asked to perform an equestrian carrousel, a mounted dance in which riders and horses execute precision movements in tandem, often in time with music.  Curious about the history of this tradition, my friends and I interviewed our instructor after our lesson, while sipping Moet & Chandon champagne... but I’ll get back to that in a minute!

The mounted spectacle, known in French as le carrousel, seems to have come from 16^th century Renaissance Italy, from the house of the Medici in Florence.  It first appeared at the French court in the early 1600’s to mark royal weddings or important state visits.  One famed equestrian ballet, choreographed by Louis XIII’s instructor, Antoine de Pluvinel, is still remembered and performed today.  Le Carrousel du Roi debuted in 1612 to celebrate the engagement of young Louis XIII to his future wife, Anne of Austria.

The carrousel typically took place in a royal square or courtyard where elaborately costumed riders from the king’s cavalry or private guard carried out choreographed routines symbolic of the moves horsemen used in battle.  Even today, in the resulting riding tradition called dressage, rider and mount approach then side step away from one another, ride in criss-crossing lines, move across the arena - as in the battlefield - nose to nose in a perfect line, and form shapes with an accuracy reflective of a well-trained mount and his even better-trained cavalier.  In the days of kings, these demonstrations often took place at night, with riders carrying torches.  They were almost always accompanied by the music of court composers, such as Lully.

The Place du Carrousel in front of the Louvre in Paris acquired its named when Louis XIV used it for an equestrian ballet in 1662. 

Today’s Garde Républicaine, a prestigious mounted division of the French police, traces its origins back to the musketeers of Alexandre Dumas fame, the private forces employed to protect the kings, and cardinals, of France. 

Garde Républicaine carrousel "La Maison Du Roi"
envoyé par LoveHorse95. - Découvrez les dernières tendances en vidéo.

Now about that champagne:  Another French tradition, at least at my riding club, states that whenever a rider takes a fall, he or she is obliged to bring champagne to the next class.  Hence, our morning lesson in French history accompanied by a lovely bubbly!